Value of Art to the People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Value of Art to the People - Essay Example To this end, the piece of art serves them a memory of what they normally refer to as the sacrifice of Christ and so as it would naturally be expected, the value the sacrifice and thus the art dearly. The notion I develop about the people is that they are highly religious with so much emphasis on the Christian religion. From the piece of art I saw and how carefully the people have invested into the beauty and glamour of the art, it will not be out of place to say that most of the people are Christians who cherish the sacrifice of their religious leader highly. Again, I get the notion that even though there may as many popular cultures associated with the people, they are more inclined to their religious concepts than other aspects of their lives. There were two major components of the piece of art that was seen. The first has to do with the scene of an oval vessel with a sealed base. The vessel is made of clay and so could be said to be a ceramic art. The vessel can, therefore, hold w ater and food. The second scene is a tripod that has been made of stone. The color of the vessel and the stones are the same but there has been any color used to create other designs on the vessel. Looking closely at the piece of art, one can tell how the people value the availability of food and water, which are two of the major needs for human existence. However, the piece of art preaches that food and water can be made available only when the people come together as a collective force; as in the case of the tripod to work together. Indeed, the vessel cannot stand if any of the three stones is removed. From the value of the art to the people, I get a notion that the people are highly hard working and believe in the virtue of unity. It is not surprising there is the saying among the Chinese, who are also Asians that in unity is strength.  

Human Genetics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human Genetics - Essay Example The proponents of human genetic engineering argue that the process leads to higher resistance of the body towards diseases and that it does not lead to the production of identical genetic make-up of the body as argued by the opponents (Barnet and Bedau 515). I support the opponents of human genetic engineering who argue that the engineering of human genetics leads to high risks of acquiring diseases, low adaptability of the body to changes, and decreased evolution (Powell 3). This paper will argue for and against human genetic engineering using the opposing viewpoints of various researchers. According to Powell, â€Å"the procedure maintains the diverse nature of genotypes and phenotypes in the body of the clone (40).† The clone is the human being who is a result of the genetic engineering process. The supporters argue that phenotypes, which are produced by genotypes, endure in the environment independently meaning that they do not develop identically (Palvokacs, Kinnison, Correa, Dalton and Hendry 6). This means that the phenotype of the clone and the real person are not identical and it also indicates that they are diverse and can adapt to various environments. The supporters of genetic engineering also argue that organelles such as the nucleus and the mitochondria that exist in the body cells contain their own DNA that is different from that of other parts (Powell 5). The proponents also use the adaptive and neutral genetic variation of the nucleus to found their argument. The nucleus evolves in these two processes meaning that it adapts to new environments besides adopting traits from the host body. This means that these organelles undergo mutation that enables them to become resistant to diseases in their new environment. Therefore, according to the proponents of genetic engineering, the process leads to the

Examining Violence In Titus Andronicus Film Studies Essay

Examining Violence In Titus Andronicus Film Studies Essay Titus Andronicus is probably one of the most notorious and violent plays that the poet and playwright William Shakespeare has ever written. But even if this certain revenge play is unheard-of, there is still a lot of room for interpretation, even more when it is compared to a film version. One could for example comment on the several murders, the cannibalism, the rape, the dismemberment of human bodies and so on. Thus, revenge and violence are an important topic in this play and that is why I will analyze the presentation of violence in Julie Taymor s version of Titus Andronicus named Titus and released in 2000, and compare it to the representation of violence in the primary source. What I would like to demonstrate is that in the film violence is presented in a grotesque way. So the question is, whether the play offers a grotesque basis for Taymor s film or whether this is rather her own interpretation. In order to do that, I will first define the concept of the grotesque, including its connotations and effects on the reader or the audience. Furthermore, I will pick out scenes that support my argument. To demonstrate the grotesque in the film I will depict and interpret three key scenes. The first scene will be Lavinia s rape, in which Lavinia is assaulted by Chiron and Demetrius and gets her hands and tongue cut off afterwards. In addition, I will present a scene, where a messenger delivers Titus Andronicus his own hand and his sons heads. The last scene will deal with the situation, where Titus dresses up as a cook and serves Tamora, his most dreaded enemy, and others her two sons that he killed and cooked earlier. 1.2. Information on the Play and the Film In this section I would like to give information on the play and on the film in short terms. Titus Andronicus, which is a revenge play as already mentioned, was written by Shakespeare in the late 1580s and updated around 1593 . Sw rdh claims that there are still critics who are not sure whether the play was written by Shakespeare alone, since it is very different from his other plays. Julie Taymor s film Titus was released in 1999 and failed at the box office although it was highly praised by critics. In her adaptation the story is set in Ancient Rome but is mixed with modern elements, such as cars and firearms. In addition, in Taymor s framing of the Shakespearean play the boundary between reality and fiction is crossed several times . This crossing of boundaries is a hint that Taymor uses the filmic mode in her adaptation. According to Jorgens there are several modes that are used to measure the films relative distance from the language and conventions of the theatre . In Shakespeare on Film he introduces the theatrical, the realistic and the filmic mode. The theatrical mode looks like a theatre performance and involves the audience. There are a lot of medium and long shots used. The realistic mode, however, takes advantage of the camera s unique ability to show us things [] . This for example includes close-ups. The filmic mode is the mode of the film poet, whose works bear the same relation to the surfaces of reality that poems do to ordinary conversation . That means that reality becomes insignificant in the filmic mode and can be mixed up with elements of the unreal. In this mode many non-theatrical techniques which also include close-ups, long shots, several camera angle and movements. In Taymor s adaptation the reality is penetrated by dream sequences that Taymor herself calls Penny Arcade Nightmares or short P.A.N.s. Two examples of the P.A.N.s will be discussed later in this paper. According to Jorgens, the filmic mode makes it possible for the directors not only to present what Shakespeare literally has written in his plays but also the subtext , which reveals the character feelings and thoughts between the lines of a play. In this paper I will show that the grotesque is what is hidden between the lines in Shakespeare s play and what is made extremely visible in Taymor s film. 2. The Grotesque According to Thomson the concept of the grotesque changes from time to time and has gained importance only since the 1950s. However, the concept of the grotesque is old and was already used by poets as Dante and Ovid. The modern way to define the grotesque is to view it as a fundamentally ambivalent thing, as a violent clash of opposites [ ] Thomson argues that the grotesque is always connected to the comic and the terrifying at the same time and that there is problem to decide whether something is funny (not only in the sense of comic but also in the sense of strange) or horror. This leads to an unresolved problem and [the] special impact of the grotesque will be lacking if the conflict is resolved .Thus he offers the definition that the grotesque is the unresolved clash of incompatibles in work and response . Something grotesque can also be named bizarre, absurd and macabre, which I think is also very common in both, the film and the play. One of the lines Titus says in the scene where he asks Aaron to cut off his hand is: Lend me thy hand and I will give thee mine (3.1.189). He asks Aaron to help him to cut off his hand and tells him that he will give him his hand when Aaron is done. This is a macabre situation because the fact that Titus is having his hand lopped off is very gruesome, but the line he is saying is funny (in the sense of comic) and this evokes two opposite feelings namely disgust and amusement which is, according to Thomson, the usual but abnormal reaction to the grotesque. Harpham puts the definition of the grotesque in different words: when we use the word grotesque we record [ ] the sense that although our attention has been arrested, our understanding is unsatisfied . He also explains that the grotesque has always to do with the clash of two opposites, such as the known and the unknown or the perceived and the unperceived . Although he agrees with Thomson concerning the reaction towards the grotesque, he elaborates more on the fact that the grotesque also depends on our own perception and interpretation of a certain issue. He argues that these two points (among others) play a [ ] crucial role in creating the sense of the grotesque . Yates also points out that in Greek mythology a grotesque creature was something that had human and animalistic body parts. This could be a person with the head of a bat, a plant with the teeth of an animal [] and so on. In Taymor s film, this definition of the grotesque is used several times. The most persistent picture is that of Lavinia as a woman with the head of a doe. This comparison will be discussed later. In this paper, I will define a scene as grotesque if it matches Thomson s definition. That means that I will analyse whether a scene is funny and terrifying at the same time in order to be called grotesque. 3. The Original Titus Andronicus and Taymor s Adaptation 3.1. Scene 1: Lavinia s Rape 3.1.1. The Main Scene The scene starts with Tamora s sons entering with the ravished Lavinia in 2.4.1 in the play and their hysteric laughter in 63:05 min in the film, ending at line 55 and at 66:19 min. This scene will be analyzed concerning camera movements, angles and framing, because this is very important for the interpretation of this scene. This scene was chosen as one of the grotesque scenes because Lavinia is presented in a very grotesque way. It is not only her looks but also the use of the camera and the music that create this impression. All of these elements will be explained in this chapter. The rape scene begins with an extreme long shot of the two brothers laughing and moving around Lavinia, who is only shown from the back, being obviously filmed after the rape and mutilation. It is filmed from a high angle and creates the image that the audience sees the scene from her point of view. There is also a hand-held camera used, which moves quickly and follows the two men (or rather boys) causing a jerky, ragged effect , which is very often used in the horror genre. In addition, the fact that Lavinia is only seen from behind arouses the feeling that something very uncomfortable is following. When Lavinia is finally seen from front view, a canted angle, suggest[ing] imbalance , and a long shot are used, so that Lavinia s whole body and her surroundings can be recognized. She starts moving, her face wreathing in pain. This adds to the grotesque impression of the whole scene. When Chiron and Demetrius leave we can see Marcus walking through the forest. As he sees Lavinia, he starts walking towards her. Here, a medium shot is used and the scene is filmed on eye level. The camera movement can be described as a reverse dolly shot, which just follows the character that is filmed slowly and steadily. The camera starts zooming closer to Lavinia and when she opens her mouth, there is a medium shot showing her upper part of the body, which is followed by a close-up at Marcus s face. This whole second part of the scene with Marcus and Lavinia is shot at eye level. This is a contrast to the first part where Lavinia is filmed with Tamora s sons. It creates the impression that Marcus and Lavinia are at the same level. Marcus is devastated and pities Lavinia and you can see how much he loves his niece, so there is no imbalance or violence at all. Tamora s sons, however, hurt Lavinia and make fun of her afterwards. Moreover, the steady movements of the camera in the second part of the scene and the fast camera movements in the first part of the scene also aggravate this effect. In the film version, a lot of lines from the play have been left out in this scene. However, the words that Marcus says in the play are shown by the actors through facial expressions and movements of the body. In the play he says: Alas, a crimson river of warm blood [] Doth rise and fall between thy rosed lips (2.3.22-2.3.24). These lines and the following monologue are left out in the film. But since Lavinia opens her mouth and the audience can actually see the blood, it is not necessary for Marcus to repeat that. The whole monologue where he regrets what happened to Lavinia is also made superfluous through the close-up at his face, which already has been described. At this moment, his facial expression demonstrates his distress and words are not necessary. Another important fact in this scene is that Lavinia is compared to a tree. Marcus says in the play: Speak gentle niece, what stern ungentle hands Hath lopped and hewed and made thy body bare Of her two branches, those sweet ornaments [ ] (2.3.16-2.3.19) Here, Marcus uses a lot of expressions that have to do with wood and wood processing, which are branches , lopped and hewed , thus comparing her body to a tree. When he finds Lavinia in the film version, branches have been plugged into her stumps. This creates a very grotesque impression. It is funny in the sense of strange, because it is a very uncommon picture and it is terrifying at the same time, if one thinks about the pain that Lavinia must feel at this moment. Although this is not explicitly mentioned in the primary source, one could say that the play provides a basis for Taymor s interpretation because of the several comparisons to wood. Taymor also sets the scene that is described here in a place that reminds of a dead wood, because there are dead, black trees and stubs everywhere, surrounded by a lot of mud. In this scene Lavinia is also standing on a stub, which adds even more to Marcus s comparison of her as a tree, and her movements remind of a thin tree that is swaying in the wind. What is also worth mentioning is that earlier in the film, in the scene where Chiron and Demetrius kill Lavinia s husband Bassanius in front of her, the scene is set in a verdant forest. But after her rape the forest is dead, which could also be an allusion to the destruction of Lavinia and her chastity. Another hint that Lavinia s rape should be presented in a grotesque way is that fact that the incident that happened to her is often compared to Philomela s story. Harpham argues that the grotesque can also be found in the work of the Roman poet Ovid. Interestingly enough, Ovid s work is also used very often as a metaphor in Shakespeare s play. Marcus says later in the scene about his niece: A craftier Tereus, cousin, hast thou met, And he hath cut those pretty fingers off, That could have better sewed than Philomel. (2.3.41-2.3.43) Here, he compares Lavinia to Ovid s Philomela who is raped by King Tereus of Thrace and gets her tongue chopped off, as well. That comparison establishes a connection between the grotesque scene in Taymor s film and Shakespeare s play. However, according to Cartelli and Rowe, Taymor does not present Lavinia as Philomela but as Daphne, who is also one of the protagonists of Ovid s poems. Daphne was like Lavinia a chaste virgin. She was persecuted by Apollo who was madly in love with her and so she asked her father Peneus, a river god, to change her shape in order to stop Apollo. Consequently, her father turned Daphne into a tree. The picture of Lavinia as Daphne is even more strengthened when Young Lucius brings her wooden hands to replace hers. Another important argument is that Lavinia is constantly compared to an animal. In the scene where Aaron talks Chiron and Demetrius into raping Lavinia she is very often referred to as a doe. Aaron even says: And strike her home by force, if not by words (1.1.618). According to the notes of this edition the word striking was used as a technical term for killing or wounding a deer . In Taymor s film, there is a P.A.N. that reflects this allusion, which will be discussed later in this chapter. Thus, Lavinia is often compared to animals and to trees, but she is never regarded as a woman. Hanson argues that female composite figures are seen as sexual animals in Greek mythology. Lavinia is reduced to a sex symbol (as would be called nowadays). Finally, one could say that Lavinia s rape scene which is depicted in a very grotesque way in the film is not explicitly grotesque in the play. However, Shakespeare provides a basis for the grotesque scene, by comparing Lavinia to a tree and to Philomela, whose story was perceived as grotesque, as well and by actually having her hands and tongue lopped off. 3.2.2. Additional Scene: Lavinia as doe woman This scene cannot be found explicitly in Shakespeare s play. However, it is important for the scene that was described above and adds crucial information for the picture of Lavinia in the play. This very short scene is also one of the already mentioned Penny Arcade Nightmares . It starts at 93:25 min and end at 94:15 min. Starks argues that [t]he P.A.N.s, which occur at strategic moments throughout Titus, [ ] further interrogate the act of viewing horror . She adds that they are supposed to mix reality and imagination. Usually, in P.A.N. the characters try to reprocess something that has happened to them. But there is also always a nightmare element in these P.A.N.s. This P.A.N. happens parallel to the action in the play. It is the moment where Lavinia writes down the names of Chiron and Demetrius in the sand. The stage directions tell us that [s]he takes [a] staff in her mouth, and guides it with her stumps, and writes (4.1.76). In the film the staff reminds of a phallic symbol (Lavinia is reduced to a sex symbol again) and the P.A.N. takes place while she writes. At the beginning she can be seen with the head of a doe on her head and with tigers jumping from both sides at her. There is a long shot used and the whole scene is shown in slow motion. The doe usually connected to innocence and weakness and one must involuntarily think of Walt Disney s Bambi. The tigers however are connected to strength and power. This shows that poor Lavinia had no chance to protect herself from the two brothers. The music in the background sounds psychedelic and is accompanied by Lavinia s grunts. The colours are mainly blue and black except for her white dress. Suddenly Lavinia looks scared and there are close-ups of her face and the faces of Chiron and Demetrius. The last shot shows Lavinia standing on a pedestal in a breeze in her white dress which reminds very much of Marilyn Monroe, who was a sex symbol in the 1950s. This comparison underlines the idea that Lavinia is reduced constantly to an object of desire in the play and in the film. This P.A.N. shows us what cannot be seen in the main scene. We can see how much Lavinia must have suffered and as Taymor puts it a bolt of electric shock seems to run through [Lavinia s] body . However, the comparison to Marilyn Monroe in that situation and the fast cuts that are put together in the P.A.N. create a very grotesque image. According to Cartelli and Rowe the arrangements in this scene are the same as in all the other P.A.N.s. The victim stands in the middle and is attacked from the left and the right side. Stark also connects the shot where Lavinia can be seen standing on a pedestal to the first shot after her rape. The idea is basically the same: Lavinia is standing on a stump, wearing a white dress in a breeze. In this scene she seems to be the one who is put above all of the others but she is also the one who is humiliated in the worst way. However, the two shots evoke completely different feelings. After her rape the audiences is shocked by that shot and we pity Lavinia. But in the second shot the audience looks at her as an appealing woman, who is teasing with her movements, which adds a grotesque element to the whole Lavinia theme in the film. But, from our point of view her representation in the whole play is grotesque as well because of her constantly reduced role. 3.2. Scene 2: Titus and many severed body parts This scene will deal with Titus cutting off his hand with the aid of Aaron in order to trade it for the live of his sons. But Aaron tricks him and so, Titus only gets the heads of his two sons and his own hand at the end. In the play this scene starts in 3.1.151 and ends with line 206, going on from 3.1.235 until line 241. In the film the scene starts at 75:19 min, goes on until 78:00 min and continues from 80:19 min to 84:21 min. The part in between is not connected closely to the scene and will be left out. In this scene hands play again an important role. Lavinia loses her hands after the rape and cannot be an independent person anymore. In this scene the meaning of hands becomes even more evident. According to Katherine Rowe the hand is perceived as a separate part of the body, which controls the material world. She argues that the hand is [ ] the body part most often associated with intentional, effective action [ ] . Even Aristotle discussed the importance of hands and claimed that the hand is the instrument of instruments . According to Rowe, the Greek philosopher Galen continued Aristotle s thought and asserted that the hand not only is the supreme instrument but also a tool that uses tools . In the play there are often allusions made to the hand and it is associated with many different adjectives and attributes. It is called victorious, noble, idle and so on. What is also interesting is that the hand is the one that gets credited for several deeds. In this scene for example Lucius says to his father: Stay father, for that noble hand of thine That hath thrown down so many enemies Shall not be sent. (3.1.163-3.1.165) Thus, it is the ultimate punishment to lose a hand and turn into a person, who cannot be independent anymore. But still, Titus does not hesitate to give his hand for his sons lives, even though the thought of cutting it off must be horrible. This is the part of the scene, which fulfils the criterion of being terrifying in order to be grotesque. The funny part (this time in the sense of comic) is fulfilled by what is said by Titus. He tells Aaron: Lend me thy hand and I will give thee mine (3.1.188) Titus is actually making a joke in this very serious, potentially life-threatening situation. This creates an image of something grotesque and this is also how Taymor presents the scene in her film. This part of the scene is set in a kitchen. Here, the grotesque is very explicit, because Titus enters the kitchen with Aaron, takes away the cook s carving board, which she just used to chop vegetables, lays down his hand and lets him cut it off with a cleaver. It is a comic situation because the severed hand looks unreal as if it is elastic and because there is no blood at all, but still the thought of the pain that one must suffer getting his hand lopped off and Titus s facial expression, create a feeling of horror, which is supported by a close-up at Titus s face. The use of the camera and the filming techniques do not have as much importance in this scene as in the scene discussed in chapter 3.1. However, it is noticeable that Aaron talks directly to the camera several times, which is called a face-on tracking shot. This creates the effect that he is directly addressing the audience and he usually does that, when he is supposed to say something aside in the stage directions of the play. However, what is more important is the use of music in this scene. When Aaron and Titus walk to the kitchen to cut Titus s hand off, a lot of trumpets, horns and string players can be heard. The music sounds aggressive, frightening and loud and fits to the determined walk of the two characters and their speed. When Aaron leaves the kitchen with the hand and starts talking to the camera, the music changes and jazzy sounds can be heard. This again underlines the words that are said and helps turning the mood from frightening to comic. The second part of the scene is even more grotesque, because Taymor once again mixes modern elements with those from the Roman Empire. Guneratne puts it in the following words: [ ] a derelict biker-clown pulls a wagon functioning as a mobile arcade [ ] and, after dancing grotesquely about and manically promoting his show like a demented carny barker, he unveils the severed heads of Titus s two sons and the hand Titus severed to ransom them . This scene is described as a P.A.N. by Taymor herself. According to Cartelli and Rowe The penny arcade evokes the carnivalesque atmosphere of a fair or beachside entertainment zone given over to casual meandering among games of chance, fortune tellers, tattoo parlo[u]rs, and overstuffed displays of cheap prizes and merchandise . This quote implies that what you usually can see in such a circumstance is meaningless and just used as entertainment, but seeing the heads of one s own two sons has actually nothing to do with entertainment and cheap prizes , which add to the grotesque effect. Cartelli and Rowe continue that the P.A.N.s also demonstrate nightmare and let the characters relive what has happened to them before. However, the P.A.N described here is different, since it reflects a situation that is actually going on and not just a dream of one of the characters: This still life P.A.N. signals the turn in the play where the nightmares are now reality and madness can be confused with sanity [] . To underline the grotesque picture of the messenger Taymor also changes his character. In the play he seems to be compassionate, talking to Andronicus about his father s death. But in the film, he seems to be uninterested in what he is saying, as if he is quoting something he, himself, has no stake in . The way he delivers his massage supports the grotesque in the film. However, in this short part Taymor did not take the play as a basis for her interpretation. In this whole scene the comic element is presented at first by the clown and the little girl. The music, that is played, sounds like circus music and stops abruptly as the clown pulls up the roller shutter. The effect is that the audience is shocked and terrified, since the two heads of the sons, which look fairly unreal and disgusting, swimming in a red fluid, put in a dirty glass cover, are finally visible for everyone. This is already very grotesque but it becomes even more grotesque when Titus asks Lavinia to take his dead, severed hand in her badly injured mouth. The picture of the raped and mutilated girl with the dishevelled hair and the hand in her mouth makes her look like a dog, which is a very disturbing thought. Finally, one could say that this is also a scene, where the play offers a grotesque basis for Taymor s version. Marcus suggests that Titus should rant but instead of ranting Titus starts laughing. This is a reaction, which is not expected by the reader and turns the situation into something uncommon. In addition, the moment where Lavinia shall take her father s hand and carry it in her mouth is really happening in the play and Taymor takes Titus s request literally. The effect of this scene is stronger in the film than in the play, because watching Lavinia taking the hand is much more disturbing than reading it. 3.3. Scene 3: Titus, the Cook The last scene that will be discussed in this paper starts in 5.3.26 and ends with line 65. In the film the scene goes from 138:30 min to 144:30 min. In this scene, the grotesque can be found everywhere. It is grotesque how the cakes containing the two dead sons are presented. It is grotesque how Titus kills his own daughter and how all of the protagonists are stabbed with a knife, a spoon and a candleholder. The music, the camera angles and filming techniques everything in this scene seems grotesque. This analysis will begin with the filming techniques. Directly at the beginning of the scene there is a close-up at the two pies that Titus made out of Chiron s and Demetrius bodies, cooling down on a windowsill. There is vivid, friendly, jazzy music playing in the background and the curtains are moving slowly because of the wind. This picture evokes the feeling that some lovely housewife who lives in a cosy home, made these delicious looking pies for her family. But of course, this is not the case and the knowledge of the two dead human beings inside that pies cause feelings of disgust and agitation. As soon as the guests including Tamora, Saturnius, Lucius, Marcus and others are seated Titus brings in one of the pies and cuts it. The first peace is for Tamora and inside the pie looks bloody and raw, once again creating disgust. The whole scene is shot at eye level and most frequently there are medium shots and close-ups used to show the characters. However, when everyone starts eating there are several extreme close-ups at their mouths chewing with pieces of the pie sticking between their teeth. Wilson argues that these kinds of shots are supposed to cause dramatic effect . Looking at these people chewing raises the feeling of disgust even more. What is also remarkable is the use of the camera in the very last seconds of the scene. When Lucius puts a spoon in Saturnius mouth and feeds it into him until he suffocates, the scene is suddenly shown in slow motion and finally comes to a complete stop. Suddenly, Lucius is the only one that can move. He spits at Saturnius and shoots him afterwards. Finally, the scene is over and the rest of the characters are standing in the Coliseum. My suggestion is that these last seconds are used in order to point out Lucius s role. He is the only child of Titus who all in all lost one daughter and 23 sons that is still alive. Lucius makes not only an end to the scene but also to the whole violence and revenge, and becomes the new Emperor afterwards. Music and sounds in general are also very important in this scene. They underline the action in the film and support the use of the camera. When the very beautifully looking Lavinia enters the room the music changes and there is a quite orchestra in the background. As soon as Titus says that she must die it starts getting louder and when he breaks her neck, which is highlighted by a creaky sound, the music gets very loud and dramatic. A few seconds later there is again a change. When Titus stabs Tamora the soft music changes after a short moment and becomes aggressive. Now, rock music is used and is played until the ends of the scene. The rock music underlines the chaos that is breaking out at this moment and since everything goes very fast from there adds to the perplexity that the audience experiences after the end of the scene. Here, Lavinia is once more reduced to an animal. The way her father breaks her neck reminds more of wounded sparrow then of a woman or even a child. Again, Lavinia is compared to a historical figure. Titus alludes to Virginius who killed his daughter Virginia because she was deflowered (5.3.38). What is shocking is that in this scene he kills Lavinia not because of her pain or shame but because he cannot bear looking at her and because he has already cried so much because of her pain. As always Lavinia is not regarded as a woman but as something that is there to serve men. An interesting point in this scene is the connection of the character Titus to Hopkins s role as Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs. In this film Hopkins played a cannibal and in Titus he once again turns into one, when he serves the cakes. This adds a comic element and once again strengthens the grotesque impression of the whole scene. Cartelli and Rowe also observe that Hopkins sucks in his spit before slitting Chiron and Demetrius s throats , which is also usually connected to his role a Lecter and which happens shortly before the scene described here. Starks connects this last scene to the opening scene of the film and calls it a grotesque parody of the opening frame of Young Lucius (Osheen Jones) playing with ketchup-blood on the kitchen table [] . In the first scene of the film a boy can be seen playing with toy soldiers and other figures in a kitchen, wearing a paper bag on his head. Hinz describes the setting as a typical American kitchen of the 1950s and read the paper bag as a symbol for the thin wall between real and imagined violence . The picture of the boy with the paper bag on his head is comic but disturbing considering his violent game and thus grotesque. Young Lucius is a character who really exists in the play but in Taymor s adaptation his role is taken by a boy who acts as the audience. He appears in every scene described in this paper and has influence on the film. In this scene, or rather after this scene and after his father being elected as the new Emperor, Lucius leaves the Coliseum with Aaron s and Tamora s baby on his arm, which, according to Hinz, hints at the end of violence between the Romans and the Goths. 4. Conclusion In this term paper it has been shown that violence is treated as something grotesque in Taymor s adaptations of Titus Andronicus. First of all, the term the grotesque has been defined and afterwards three scenes were chosen from the film and interpreted. Whether a scene is grotesque or not has been analysed according to Thomson s criteria. Finally the film scenes have been compared to the corresponding scenes in the play. Camera angles, camera movements, the gestures of the characters, the music and of course the text is what was taken into consideration during the analysis of the film. What has been pointed out in this paper is that the play offers a grotesque basis for Taymor s interpretation. It was not only presented very explicitly through the actions of the characters but also hinted at by the stage directions, by the actual text (e.g. through the use of metaphors and allusions to Greek mythology) and t

Causation and Moral Responsibility for Death Essay -- Euthanasia Physi

Causation and Moral Responsibility for Death ABSTRACT: The distinction between killing and letting die has been a controversial element in arguments about the morality of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. The killing/letting die distinction is based on causation of death. However, a number of causal factors come into play in any death; it is impossible to state a complete cause of death. I argue that John Mackie’s analysis of causation in terms of ‘inus factors,’ insufficient but non-redundant parts of unnecessary but sufficient conditions, helps us to see that moral responsibility for death cannot rest on causation alone. In specifying the cause of death, some factors can be considered alternatively as either causal factors or merely parts of the presupposed background conditions. If a factor is moved from the background field into the causal field, the result is a changed background field. Comparisons of cases of killing and letting die often do just this; hence, the cases depend on different pres uppositions and the causation cannot be directly compared. Moral judgments determine how to apportion factors to the causal and background fields. The distinction between killing and letting die has been used by many to condemn euthanasia and assisted suicide while giving approbation to withdrawing life-support systems in at least some patients. In the recent United States Supreme Court decision which denies a right to physician-assisted suicide, Chief Justice Rehnquist writes that "when a patient refuses life sustaining medical treatment, he dies from an underlying fatal disease or pathology; but if a patient ingests lethal medication prescribed by a physician, he is killed by that medication." (1) It is doubtful, ho... ..., no.3 (1976): 15-16. (7) John Mackie, The Cement of the Universe: A Study of Causation, paperback edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980). (8) Ibid., 60-62. (9) Ibid., 63. (10) Ibid., 66-67. This statement of a "gappy" universal is fundamentally the same as Mackie’s, but I have altered the formulation for consistency. (11) O.H. Green, "Killing and Letting Die," American Philosophical Quarterly 17 (1980): 195-204, and Helga Kuhse, The Sanctity-of-Life Doctrine in Medicine: A Critique (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). (12) Kuhse, 50-51. (13) Ibid., 67-68. (14) Ibid., 68. (15) President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Deciding to Forego Life-Sustaining Treatment: Ethical, Medical, and Legal Issues in Treatment Decisions (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983), 69.

Principles for implementing duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young people settings Essay

Ci) Organisational requirements for dealing with complaints The setting should have Concerns and Complaints Policy in place. The main aim of it is to ensure that complaints procedure is properly and effectively implemented and that service users feel confident that their complaints and worries are listened to and acted upon promptly and fairly. When dealing with complaints the setting are to ensure that service users and their representatives, carers and visitors are aware of how to complain and that company provides easy to use opportunities for them to register complaints. A named person is responsible for administration of the procedure. Every written complaint is acknowledged within two working days investigations into written complaints are held within 28 days, all complaints are responded to in writing by the setting complaints are dealt with promptly, fairly and sensitively with due regard to the upset and worry that they cause to both staff and service users. The setting believes that complaints are best dealt with on a local level between the complainant and the home, but if either of the parties is not satisfied by a local process the case should be referred to the Care Quality Commission. Legal requirements for dealing with complaints Legal requirement for dealing with complaints is to follow Health and Social Care Act 2010 and National Minimum Standards – complaint policy. These standards require care home managers to have clear procedures that enable service users to make their views, concerns and worries known, and that reassure them that appropriate action will be taken. Policies and procedures for dealing with suspicion or evidence of physical, financial or material, psychological or sexual abuse, neglect, self harm or degrading behaviour should also be put in place. Standards require that every care home: have clear and effective complaints procedure, which includes the stage of, and time scales, for the process. Other legal requirements to take into consideration ‘Data Protection Act 1998’, any information must be stored as stated in the act and all members of staff must be familiar with this and follow the guidelines. Human Rights Act, GSC codes of Practice and the Mental Capacity Act 2005 to empower and protect people who may lack capacity to make some decisions for themselves. Cii) Describe how best to respond to complaints from service users, other practitioners and the family of service users. Respond openly and appropriately to any comment or complaint made to you. If a complaint is made to you then you should ensure the individual making it understands how to use the complaints procedure, explain how it works and when they can expect to receive a response. Offer support in following the procedure to the individual making the complaint if appropriate. Advise your manager. Do not discourage individuals from making complaints or discuss complaints with colleagues or anyone other than your manager and do not promise to ‘sort it out’.

Question Bank International Business Essay

Chapter 07 Foreign Direct Investment True / False Questions 1. (p. 242) A firm becomes a multinational enterprise when it undertakes foreign direct investment. TRUE 2. (p. 242) Licensing involves the establishment of a new operation in a foreign country. FALSE 3. (p. 242) If a firm that makes bicycles in Germany acquires a French bicycle producer, Greenfield investment has taken place. FALSE 4. (p. 242) The amount of FDI undertaken over a given time period is known as the flow of FDI. TRUE 5. (p. 242) The total accumulated value of foreign-owned assets at a given time is the inflow of FDI. FALSE 6. (p. 242) FDI is seen by executives as a means of circumventing future trade barriers. TRUE 7. (p. 244) Historically, most FDI has been directed at the developed nations of the world as firms based in advanced countries invested in the others’ markets. TRUE 8. (p. 246) The total amount of capital invested in factories, stores, office buildings and the like is referred to as the stock of FDI. FALSE 9. (p. 246) The largest source country for FDI has been China. FALSE 10. (p. 247) About 27 percent of the world’s largest 100 nonfinancial multinationals in 2004 were American companies. TRUE 11. (p. 247) In developing countries, about one third of FDI is in the form of mergers and acquisitions. TRUE 12. (p. 248) In 2004, about two thirds of FDI stock was in service industries. TRUE 13. (p. 249) As compared to exporting and licensing, FDI is the more expensive and risky. TRUE 14. (p. 250) Internalization theory is also known as the market imperfections approach. TRUE 15. (p. 250) One of the problems of licensing is that it may result in a firm’s giving away valuable technological know-how to a potential foreign competitor. TRUE 16. (p. 251) An oligopoly is an industry composed of a limited number of large firms. TRUE 17. (p. 252) When two or more enterprises encounter each other in different regional markets, national markets or industries regional competition occurs. FALSE 18. (p. 252) According to Vernon, location specific advantages can help explain the nature and direction of FDI. FALSE 19. (p. 253) Dunning, in the eclectic paradigm theory, suggests that a firm must establish production facilities where foreign assets or resource endowments necessary to the production of the product exist. TRUE 20. (p. 254) Pragmatic nationalism traces its roots to Marxist political and economic theory. FALSE 21. (p. 254) Classical economics and the international trade theories of Adam Smith and David Ricardo form the basis for the free market view. TRUE 22. (p. 255) The free market view argues that FDI is a benefit to both the source country and to the host country. TRUE 23. (p. 255) Countries adopting a pragmatic stance pursue policies designed to maximize the national benefits and minimize the national costs. TRUE 24. (p. 256) An aspect of pragmatic nationalism is the tendency to aggressively court FDI believed to be in the national interest by, for example, offering subsidies to foreign MNEs in the form of tax breaks or grants. TRUE 25. (p. 257) Foreign direct investment can make a positive contribution to a host economy by supplying capital, technology and management resources that would otherwise not be available and thus boost that country’s economic growth rate. TRUE 26. (p. 258) There is research supporting the view that multinational firms often transfer significant technology when they invest in a foreign country. TRUE 27. (p. 258) Jobs created in local suppliers as a result of the MNE’s investment and jobs created because of increased local spending by employees of the MNE are examples of direct employment effects of FDI. FALSE 28. (p. 258) Host country citizens that are employed by an MNE following an FDI are an example of an indirect effect of FDI. FALSE 29. (p. 259) A country’s balance of payments accounts keep track of both its payments to and its receipts from other countries. TRUE 30. (p. 259) A current account deficit exists when a country imports more than it exports. TRUE 31. (p. 259) In recent years, the U.S. has run a persistent balance of payments surplus. FALSE 32. (p. 260) Host governments sometimes worry that the subsidiaries of foreign MNEs may have greater economic power than indigenous competitors. TRUE 33. (p. 261) FDI does not benefit the host country’s balance of payments if the foreign subsidiary creates demand for home-country exports of capital equipment, intermediate goods or complementary products. FALSE 34. (p. 262) The term offshore production refers to FDI undertaken to serve the home market. TRUE 35. (p. 263) Countries cannot prohibit national firms from investing in certain countries for political reasons. FALSE 36. (p. 264) The two most common methods of restricting inward FDI are ownership restraints and performance requirements. TRUE 37. (p. 265) The WTO has been very successful in efforts to initiate talks aimed at establishing a universal set of rules designed to promote the liberalization of FDI. FALSE 38. (p. 266) Licensing is a good option for firms in high-tech industries where protecting firm-specific expertise is of paramount importance. FALSE 39. (p. 266-267) Typically licensing will be a common strategy in oligopolies where competitive interdependence requires that multinational firms maintain tight control over foreign operations so that they have the ability to launch coordinated attacks against their global competitors. FALSE 40. (p. 267) Licensing is more common in fragmented, low-tech industries in which globally dispersed manufacturing is not an option. TRUE Multiple Choice Questions 41. (p. 242) FDI occurs when a A. Domestic firm imports products and services from another country B. Firm ships its product from one country to another C. Firm invests in the stock of another company D. Firm invests directly in facilities to produce and/or market a product in a foreign country 42. (p. 242) A Greenfield investment A. Is a form of FDI that involves the establishment of a new operation in a foreign country B. Involves a 7 percent stock in an acquired foreign business entity C. Involves a merger with a foreign business D. Occurs when a firm acquires another company in a foreign countr 43. (p. 242) If General Electric, a U.S. based corporation, purchased a 50% interest in a company in Italy, that purchase would be an example of a(n) A. Minority acquisition B. Outright stake C. Majority acquisition D. Greenfield investment 44. (p. 242) The amount of FDI undertaken over a given time period is A. The flow of FDI B. The stock of FDI C. The FDI outflow D. The FDI inflow 45. (p. 242) The stock of FDI is A. The amount of FDI undertaken over a given period of time B. The total accumulated value of foreign owned assets at a given time C. The flow of FDI out of a country D. The flow of FDI into a country 46. (p. 242) FDI has been rising for all of the following reasons, except A. The globalization of the world economy B. The general increase in trade barriers over the past 30 years C. Firms are trying to circumvent trade barriers D. There is a shift toward democratic political institutions and free market economies 47. (p. 244) Historically, most FDI has been directed at the _____ nations of the world as firms based in advanced countries invested in A. Underdeveloped, underdeveloped countries B. Developed, underdeveloped countries C. Developed, each other’s markets D. Underdeveloped, each other’s markets 48. (p. 244) The U.S. has been an attractive target for FDI because of all of the following reasons, except A. Its small and wealthy domestic markets B. Its dynamic and stable economy C. Its favorable political environment D. Its openness to FDI 49. (p. 244) Identify the incorrect statement regarding the direction of FDI. A. Historically, most FDI has been directed at the developing nations of the world B. During the 1980s and 1990s, the United States was often the favorite target for FDI inflows C. The developed nations of the EU have received significant FDI inflows D. Recent inflows into developing nations have been targeted at the emerging economies of South, East and Southeast Asia 50. (p. 246) Africa is not a popular destination for FDI because of all of the following reasons, except A. Political unrest in the region B. Armed conflict in the region C. Liberalization of FDI regulations D. Frequent policy changes in the region 51. (p. 246) The total amount of capital invested in factories, stores, office buildings and the like is summarized by A. Gross fixed capital formation B. Total investment capital C. Total tangible investment D. Gross depreciable investments 52. (p. 246) The largest source country for FDI since World War II has been A. Japan B. China C. The United States D. The United Kingdom 53. (p. 247) Most cross-border investment is A. In the form of Greenfield investments B. Made via mergers and acquisitions C. Between American and Japanese companies D. Involved in building new facilities 54. (p. 247) Which of the following is not a reason why firms prefer to acquire existing assets rather than undertake green-field investments? A. Foreign firms are acquired because those firms have valuable strategic assets B. Firms make acquisitions because they believe they can increase the efficiency of the acquired unit by transferring capital, technology or management skills C. Even though Greenfield investments are comparatively less risky for a firm acquisitions always yield higher profits D. Mergers and acquisitions are quicker to execute than green-field investments 55. (p. 247) In developing nations most FDI inflows are in the form of A. Mergers B. Greenfield investments C. Acquisitions D. Non-profit organizations 56. (p. 248) The sector composition of FDI shows that by 2004 approximately _____ of FDI stock was in service industries. A. One fourth B. One third C. Two third D. Half 57. (p. 248) The rise in FDI in the services sector is a result of all of the following, except A. The general move in many developed countries away from manufacturing and toward services B. Accelerating regulations of services C. Many services cannot be traded internationally D. Many countries have liberalized their regimes governing FDI in services 58. (p. 248) When strategic assets such as brand loyalty, customer relationships or distribution systems are important, _____ investments are more appropriate. A. Merger and acquisition B. Greenfield C. Portfolio D. New construction 59. (p. 249) _____ involves granting a foreign entity the right to produce and sell the firm’s product in return for a royalty fee on every unit sold. A. Horizontal FDI B. Licensing C. Vertical FDI D. Greenfield investment 60. (p. 249) In a licensing arrangement, the _____ bears the risk and cost of opening a foreign market. A. Licensee B. Licensor C. Acquiring firm D. Greenfield investor 61. (p. 250) Identify the theory that seeks to explain why firms often prefer foreign direct investment over licensing as a strategy for entering foreign markets. A. Internalization theory B. Internationalization theory C. Perfect markets theory D. Small markets theory 62. (p. 250) According to the internalization theory, all of the following are drawbacks of licensing as a strategy for exploiting foreign market opportunities, except A. Licensing does not grant control over manufacturing, marketing and to a licensee in return for a royalty fee B. Licensing may result in a firm’s giving away its know-how to a potential foreign competitor C. Licensing does not give the firm the tight control over manufacturing, marketing and strategy that may be required to profitably exploit its advantage D. A firms capabilities such as the management, marketing and manufacturing are often not amenable to licensing 63. (p. 250) ______ is also known as market imperfections theory. A. Internationalization theory B. Internalization theory C. Perfect markets theory D. Small markets theory 64. (p. 251) If four firms control 80 percent of a domestic market, then ______ exists. A. An oligopoly B. A monopoly C. An oligarchy D. Vertical integration 65. (p. 251) According to Knickerbocker A. The firms that pioneer a product in their home markets undertake FDI to produce a product for consumption in a foreign market B. When a firm that is part of an oligopolistic industry expands into a foreign market, other firms in the industry will be compelled to make similar investments C. Combining location-specific assets or resource endowments and the firm’s own unique assets often requires FDI D. Impediments to the sale of know-how increase the profitability of FDI relative to licensing 66. (p. 252) The eclectic paradigm was developed by A. F. T. Knickerbocker B. Adam Smith C. Raymond Vernon D. John Dunning 67. (p. 252) When two or more enterprises encounter each other in different regional markets, national markets or industries, there is A. Vertical integration B. Horizontal integration C. Multipoint competition D. Monopolistic competition 68. (p. 252) The product life cycle suggests that A. Often the same firms that pioneer a product in their home markets undertake FDI to produce a product for consumption in foreign markets B. When a firm that is part of an oligopolistic industry expands into a foreign market, other firms in the industry will be compelled to make similar investments C. Combining location-specific assets or resource endowments and the firm’s own unique assets often requires FDI D. Impediments to the sale of know-how increase the profitability of FDI relative to licensing 69. (p. 253) The _____ suggests that a firm will establish production facilities where foreign assets or resource endowments that are important to the firm are located. A. Product life cycle B. Strategic behavior theory C. Multipoint competition theory D. Eclectic paradigm 70. (p. 253) Advantages that arise from using resource endowments or assets that are tied to a particular location and that a firm finds valuable to combine with its own unique assets are known as A. Location specific advantages B. Resource specific advantages C. Competitive advantages D. Directional advantages 71. (p. 253) John Dunning, a champion of the eclectic paradigm, argues that A. The firms that pioneer a product in their home markets undertake FDI to produce a product for consumption in a foreign market B. When a firm that is part of an oligopolistic industry expands into a foreign market, other firms in the industry will be compelled to make similar investments C. Combining location-specific assets or resource endowments and the firm’s own unique assets often requires FDI D. Impediments to the sale of know-how increase the profitability of FDI relative to licensing 72. (p. 254) According to the _____ view of FDI, MNEs extract profits from the host country and take them to their home country, giving nothing of value to the host country in exchange. A. Imperialist B. Conservative C. Free market D. Radical 73. (p. 254) Which of the following is not a reason that the radical position of MNEs was in retreat by the end of the 1980s? A. The strong economic performance of those developing countries that embraced capitalism rather than radical ideology B. The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe C. The generally abysmal economic performance of those countries that embraced the radical position D. A growing belief in many capitalist countries that MNE’s tightly controls key technology and that important jobs in the MNEs’ foreign subsidiaries go to home-country nationals 74. (p. 255) According to _____ international production should be distributed among countries according to the theory of comparative advantage. A. The radical view B. The eclectic view C. Pragmatic nationalism D. The free market view 75. (p. 256) A distinctive aspect of _____ is the tendency to aggressively court FDI believed to be in the national interest by, for example, offering subsidies to foreign MNEs in the form of tax breaks or grants. A. The dogmatic view B. Pragmatic nationalism C. The radical view D. The conservative view 76. (p. 257) When a company brings capital and/or technology to a host country, the host country benefits from the A. Competitive effect of FDI B. The resource transfer effect of FDI C. The balance of payments effect of FDI D. The effect on competition and economic growth 77. (p. 258) When jobs are created in local suppliers as a result of the FDI and when jobs are created because of increased local spending by employees of the MNE, the MNE has a _____ effect on employment. A. Direct B. Indirect C. Inward D. Outward 78. (p. 259) A _____ keeps track of a country’s payments to and its receipts from other countries. A. Federal payments ledger B. Current accounting system C. Checks and balances account D. Balance of payments account 79. (p. 259) The _____ tracks the export and import of goods and services. A current account deficit or trade deficit as it is often called, arises when a country is importing more goods and services than it is exporting. A. Current account B. Debit account C. Surplus account D. Capital account 80. (p. 261) Three costs of FDI concerns of host countries arise from all of the following except A. Adverse effects on competition within the host nation B. Adverse effects on the balance of payments C. The perceived loss of national sovereignty and autonomy D. Debit on the current account of the home country’s balance of payments 81. (p. 262) FDI undertaken to serve the home market is known as A. Greenfield investment B. FDI substitution C. Offshore production D. Home market FDI 82. (p. 263) Double taxation is A. Charging double taxes in the home country B. Charging double taxes in the host country C. Taxation of income in both home and host country D. Paying income taxes at twice the normal rate 83. (p. 264) _____ are controls over the behavior of the MNE’s local subsidiary. A. Performance requirements B. Ownership restraints C. Double taxation laws D. Greenfield restrictions 84. (p. 267) Licensing would be a good option for firms in which of the following industries? A. High-technology industries in which protecting firm-specific expertise is of paramount importance and licensing is hazardous B. Global oligopolies, in which competitive interdependence requires that multinational firms maintain tight control over foreign operations C. Industries in which intense cost pressures require that multinational firms maintain tight control over foreign operations D. In fragmented, low technology industries in which globally dispersed manufacturing is not an option 85. (p. 267) _____ is essentially the service industry version of licensing, although it normally involves much longer term commitments. A. Franchising B. Subsidizing C. Greenfield investment D. Patenting Essay Questions 86. (p. 242) Discuss the connection between foreign direct investment and multinational enterprises? Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests directly in new facilities to produce and/or market a product in a foreign country. The U.S. Department of Commerce states that FDI occurs whenever a U.S. citizen, organization or affiliated group takes an interest of 10 percent or more in a foreign business entity. Once affirm undertakes FDI, it becomes a multinational enterprise. 87. (p. 242) What are the two forms of foreign direct investment? The two forms of FDI are Greenfield investment or establishing a new operation in a foreign country and mergers and acquisitions whereby a company expands internationally through an existing firm. Acquisitions can be minority, majority or a 100% ownership position. 88. (p. 242) Discuss the trends in FDI over the last 30 years. Be sure to differentiate between the stock of FDI and the flow if FDI. The flow of FDI refers to the amount of FDI undertaken over a given period, while the stock of FDI refers to the total accumulated value of foreign-owned assets at a given time. Over the last 30 years there has been a marked increase in both the flow and the stock of FDI in the world economy. Over this period, the flow of FDI accelerated faster than the growth in world trade and world output. 89. (p. 242) Discuss the reasons for the growth in FDI over the last 30 years. FDI has grown more rapidly than world trade and world output for several reasons. First, many companies see FDI as a means of circumventing potential trade barriers. Second, political and economic changes in many of the world developing nations has been encouraging FDI. Finally, the globalization of the world economy is having a positive impact on the volume of FDI as firms now see the whole world as their market. 90. (p. 242-248) What is a Greenfield investment? How does it compare to an acquisition? Which form of FDI is a firm more likely choose? Explain your answer. FDI can take the form of a Greenfield investment in a new facility or an acquisition of or a merger with an existing local firm. Research show s that most FDI takes the form of mergers and acquisitions rather than Greenfield investment. Mergers and acquisitions are more popular for three reasons. First, mergers and acquisitions are quicker to execute than Greenfield investments. Second, foreign firms are acquired because those firms have valuable strategic assets. Third, firms make acquisitions because they believe they can increase the efficiency of the acquired firm by transferring capital, technology or management skills. 91. (p. 248) Discuss the shift in FDI from manufacturing to services. What is driving the trend? Over the last twenty years, the sector composition of FDI has shifted from extractive industries and manufacturing toward services. By 2004, some 66 percent of the stock of FDI was in services. Four factors are driving the shift to services. First, the shift reflects the general move in many developed economies away from manufacturing and toward service industries. Second, many services cannot be traded internationally and FDI is a principal was to bring services to foreign markets. Third, many count ries have liberalized their regimes governing FDI in services making the option more attractive to firms. Finally, the rise of Internet-based global telecommunications networks has allowed some service enterprises to relocate some of their value creation activities to different nations to take advantage of favorable factor costs. 92. (p. 249) Consider why firms selling products with low value-to-weight ratios choose FDI over exporting. Products with low value-to-weight ratios such as soft drinks or cement are frequently produced in the market where they are consumed. When transportation costs are added to production costs, it becomes unprofitable to shift such products over a long distance. For firms that can produce low value-to-weight products at almost any location the attractiveness of exporting decreases and FDI or licensing becomes more appealing. 93. (p. 250) Discuss the market imperfections explanation of FDI. What is its relationship with internalization theory? Market imperfections or factors that inhibit markets from working perfectly, provide a major explanation of why firms prefer FDI to either exporting or licensing. In the international business literature, the marketing imperfections approach is referred to as internalization theory. According to the theory, FDI will be preferred when there are impediments that make both exporting and the sale of know-how difficult and/or expensive. 94. (p. 250) What is licensing? How does it work? Licensing occurs when a domestic firm, the licensor, licenses to a foreign firm, the licensee, the right to produce its product, to use its production processes or to use its brand name or trademark. In return, the licensor collects royalty fees on every unit the licensee sells or on total licensee revenues. The licensor also benefits from the arrangement in that the licensee bears the cost and risk of expanding into a foreign market. 95. (p. 250) Compare and contrast the advantages of foreign direct investment over exporting and licensing. A firm will favor foreign direct investment over exporting as an entry strategy when transportation costs or trade barriers make exporting unattractive. Furthermore, the firm will favor foreign direct investment over licensing (or franchising) when it wishes to maintain control over its technological know-how or over its operations and business strategy or when the firm’s capabilities are simply not amenable to licensing, as may often be th e case. 96. (p. 251) Consider the notion that FDI flows are a reflection of strategic rivalry between firms in the global marketplace. What is the main limitation of the theory? The strategic behavior approach to explain FDI was initially expounded by Knickerbockers who argued that in an oliogopolistic industry, a â€Å"follow the leader† mentality will prompt firms to pursue FDI when another firm in the industry  has already done so. However, the theory fails to explain why the first firm decided to undertake FDI, rather than export or license. 97. (p. 252) What is multipoint competition? How do firms respond to multipoint competition? Multipoint competition arises when two or more enterprises encounter each other in different regional markets, national markets or industries. Economic theory suggests that firms will try to match each other’s moves in different markets to try to hold each other in check. If a firm is successful with this strategy, the firm will ensure that a rival does not take a commanding position in one market and then use the profits generated in that market to underwrite competitive attacks in other markets. 98. (p. 252) Explain the product life cycle theory and its connection with FDI. The product life cycle theory, developed by Ray Vernon, suggests that the same firms that pioneer a product in their home country will undertake FDI to produce a product for consumption in foreign markets. According to the theory, firms will invest in industrialized countries when demand in those countries is sufficient to sup port local production. They subsequently shift production to developing countries when product standardization and market saturation give rise to price competition and cost pressures. Investment in developing countries, where labor costs are lower is seen as the best way to reduce costs. 99. (p. 252-253) What are location-specific advantages? How do they help explain FDI? Location specific advantages are advantages that arise from using resource endowments or assets that are tied to a particular foreign location and that a firm finds valuable to combine with its own unique assets. Natural resources such as oil and minerals for example, are specific to certain locations. Firms must undertake FDI to exploit such foreign resources. 100. (p. 253) Explain John Dunning’s position on FDI. What is the eclectic paradigm? John Dunning has argued that to fully understand FDI it is important to consider the role of location specific advantages. According to Dunning, a firm will be prompted to undertake FDI in an effort to exploit assets that are specific to a particular location. Dunning’s theory, the eclectic paradigm, combines the arguments of internalization theory with the notion of location-specific advantages to suggest that combining location-specific assets or resource endowments and the firm’s own unique capabilities often requires the firm to establish production facilities where the foreign assets or resource endowments are  located. 101. (p. 254-256) Discuss the various political ideologies and their impact on foreign direct investment. The radical view writers argue that the multinational enterprise (MNE) is an instrument of imperialist domination. The free market view argues that international production should be distributed among countries according to the theory of comparative advantage. The pragmatic nationalist view is that FDI has both benefits and costs. The radical view has a dogmatic radical stance that is hostile to all inward FDI The free market view is at the other extreme and based on noninterventionist principle of free market economics. Between these two extremes is an approach called pragmatic nationalism. 102. (p. 257-262) Discuss the benefits and costs of FDI from the perspective of a host country and from the perspective of the home country. The main benefits of inward FDI for a host country arise from resource-transfer effects, employment effects, balance-of-payments effects and effects on competition and economic growth. Three costs of FDI concern host countries. They arise from possible adverse effects on competition within the host nation, adverse effects on the balance of payments and the perceived loss of national sovereignty and autonomy. The benefits of FDI to the home (source) country arise from three sources. First, the home country’s balance of payments benefits from the inward flow of foreign earnings. Second, benefits to the home country from outward FDI arise from employment effects. Third, benefits arise when the home-country MNE learns valuable skills from its exposure to foreign markets that can subsequently be transferred back to the home country. The most important cost/concern of FDI for the home country centers on the balance-of-payments and employment effects of outward FDI. 103. (p. 266-267) Describe the situations when licensing is not a good option for a firm. Licensing is not a good option in three situations. First, licensing is hazardous in high-tech industries where protecting firm-specific expertise is very important. Second, licensing is not attractive in global oligopolies where tight control is necessary so that firms have the ability to launch coordinated attacks against global competitors. Finally, in industries where intense cost pressures require that MNEs maintain tight control over foreign operations, licensing is not the best option. 104. (p. 267) What is franchising? What type of firm uses franchising as a means of expanding into foreign markets? Franchising is essentially the service-industry version of licensing. With franchising, the firm licenses its brand name to a foreign firm in return for a percentage of the franchisee’s profits. The franchising contract specifies the conditions that the franchisee must fulfill if it is to use the franchisor’s brand name. Franchise agreements usually have a longer time commitment than do licensing arrangements. Franchising is common in the fast food industry because fast food cannot be exported, because franchising minimizes the costs and risks associated with opening a foreign market, because brand names are relatively easy to protect, because there is no compelling reason for a firm to have tight control over franchisees and because fast food know-how is easily transferred. 105. (p. 267) How useful are the product life cycle theory and Knickerbocker’s theory of horizontal FDI to business? The product life cycle theory and Knickerbocker’s theory of horizontal FDI to business are not particularly useful from a business perspective because the theories are descriptive rather than analytical. The theories are useful for explaining historical patterns of FDI, but they do a poor job of identifying the factors that influence the relative probability of FDI, licensing and exporting.